Overcrowding in 19th Century Britain

Overcrowding in 19th Century Britain The Problem of Overcrowding in 19th Century Urban Britain During the nineteenth century urban populations grew at an extremely fast rate as industrial growth drew people into the cities in the search for employment. This rapid growth caused a great deal of concern amongst Victorian politicians and authorities regarding law and order, but they were at first unaware of the far greater danger which was the poor sanitation caused by the speedy building of back-to-back housing created to accommodate this population growth. The main points I will be addressing in this essay will be a) how far the growth of population was the main cause of bad health caused by overcrowding, and b) how the authorities dealt with such health problems and how far they were successful. I have chosen this particular subject because it can be argued that it was the main problem of urban living in the nineteenth century, and other problems such as pollution, cholera outbreaks or infant mortality could be said to be caused or exacerbated by such overcrowding. By the time of the 1851 census, and for the first time in the nation’s history, more people were living in urban areas than they were in rural areas. Between each census from 1841 to 1881, the population of urban areas grew by an average of 25% and by 1881 the urban population was 70.2% of the total population of England and Wales.[1] In Manchester, the city where the cotton industry caused massive urban growth, the population had increased six times within sixty years by 1831.[2] In order to cope with such numbers building of houses was undertaken as quickly as possible, often in small areas of land, which meant that in poorer areas houses were built back-to-back in high density in order to accommodate as many people as possible. In order to save space, they were built without gardens, around dark courtyards with communal privies at the end of each street. Some buildings in Edinburgh had more than ten storeys, which meant that people had to carry water up many stairs – and often didn’t bother. In Manchester, the large numbers of Irish immigrants created pockets of poverty-stricken communities living amongst the factories and smoke where ‘several families might be living under one roof or even in â€Å"the pestilential atmosphere† of one room.’[3] In London, in the period before the underground railway, when people still needed to be able to walk to work, building programs took place close to the city areas without any plannin g from central sources. Thus areas such as Bethnal Green and Whitechapel suffered from gross overcrowding, and in Covent Garden, older buildings were converted into tenements and cellars to provide for the poor settlers who swept into the metropolis, particularly in the area known as ‘The Rookeries’ where refugees from the Irish famine had settled. In 1847 Dickens described the ‘disorderly crop of beginnings of mean houses, rising out of the rubbish, as if they had been unskilfully sown there.’[4] Edwin Chadwick’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes, commissioned by the government to investigate sanitation in 1842 was undertaken through a system of interviews and visits carried out by Poor Law medical officers and commissioners. Its evidence revealed how many families lived in cellars, often several families at the same time, which were subject to flooding. In one example in Manchester, 40 people were discovered to be living in one cellar. Furthermore, unscrupulous owners of lodging houses, taking advantage of the need for housing, would put lodgers up in ‘poorly furnished, badly ventilated and overcrowded’ rooms.[5] Chadwick’s report revealed that mortality rates in urban areas were much higher than in rural areas, particularly amongst the poorer classes. In fact, the average age of death for labourers in districts such as Liverpool and Manchester was around 15 during the period 1839-40, indicating an extremely high infant mortality rate. Chadwick himself attributed these figures to squalid and overcrowded living conditions, although badly ventilated working areas and long working hours were also a contributory factor.[6] Chadwick’s report did raise awareness, yet many people, in particular the Conservative Party, did not support his recommendations, and the pressure group set up in 1844, the Health of Towns Association, found very little was being done in towns and cities to counteract the effects of poor sanitation. The attitude of laissez-faire was strong, and many authorities were opposed to sanitary reform for economic reasons. The evidence shown by Chadwick would seem to show an obvious correlation between overcrowding and poor health. However, the association between dirt and disease was not yet fully understood at this time. Outbreaks of cholera in the 1840s and 50s were the subject of much debate over its likely causes and very little was understood about how the disease was spread. It was noted, however, that the worst cases of cholera seemed to prevail in areas of towns where there was very poor sewerage or drainage, and Dr John Snow tried to demonstrate through scientific experiment that disease was water-borne. However, Snow met with huge opposition within the medical profession, and it was not until 1883 that his theory was proved. Thus, although people like Snow and Chadwick tried to encourage cleanliness amongst the working classes, very little effective work was done by the authorities. Chadwick did not suggest curative methods in his report. He declared: ‘engineers were needed for the task at hand not the medical profession’[7] He was more concerned with preventative measures, ensuring towns had regular supplies of clean water, and that houses had adequate drainage into proper sewers. However, this is not to say that medicine did not play a role in the developments that eventually led to improvements in town and city health. Medicine did in fact play a very important role in the improvements in housing. At the beginning of the century very little was known about the causes of disease, and doctors had very little equipment with which to carry out research. Surgery was extremely primitive and carried out in what we now know as unhygienic conditions. It was not until 1865 that Louis Pasteur proved his germ theory: that these micro-organisms could cause decay and disease. Robert Koch built on Pasteur’s work by showing that different types of germs caused specific illnesses, and that the answer to curing disease was to destroy the specific germ. It was Koch who, in 1883, identified the germ that caused cholera. From Pasteur and Koch’s work, vaccines began to be developed in the 1880s.[8] It was due to these discoveries, and the work of Dr. John Snow, that the authorities finally realised that it was necessary to make radical changes in the drainage and water systems in towns and cities. In 1866, the year after Pasteur had made proved his germ theory, the Sanitary Act was passed, forcing towns to appoint sanitary inspectors. Local government became responsible for public health, and eventually Public Health Act 1872 was formed, creating separate bodies each headed by a Medical Officer of Health. Despite these developments, it took a long time for housing to improve. Back-to-Back housing was still being erected in Leeds and Bradford up until 1937, despite some building regulations and strong calls for their demise.[9] In rural areas, especially around the mining towns of Wales, house building was still very hasty without due care for health, as is evidenced in this report on the area by Merthyr Tydfil: ‘If a new colliery is opened in an upland valley 200, 300 or 400 houses are built very rapidly, and they inhabited long before they are dry.’[10] However, some cities, such as Bury and Liverpool, forbid the building of back-to-backs in the 1860s. To sum up, the problem of overcrowding in urban and industrial Britain in the 19th century was one that was not widely recognised by the authorities in the early part of the century. Housing was created to accommodate vast numbers of industrial workers who flooded into the cities, and the speed at which they were built meant that little care was taken to provide adequate drainage and disposal of sewerage. Reformers such as Chadwick saw that there was a distinct connection between overcrowding and mortality rates, but it was not until scientific and medical advances proved that germs and bacteria carried by dirty water supplies caused diseases such as cholera that the government took any adequate action. The main sources I have used for this essay are Taylor, Best and Briggs. Taylor does not provide the highest academic level of text, but his clear chapters separated into different economic and social subjects, and his use of primary sources provides useful factual information. Best is one of the recognised authorities on Victorian Britain and he provides a detailed account of life in mid Victorian England. Briggs is also highly regarded as an expert in this field, and his detailed historical research provides a good, detailed overview of specific British cities during this period. Bibliography Best, Geoffrey, Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-75, Fontana Press, 1990 Briggs, Asa, Victorian Cities, Penguin, 1990 Taylor, David, Mastering Economic and Social History, Macmillan, 1988 Wilson, A. N., The Victorians, Arrow, 2003 1 Footnotes [1] Best, Geoffrey, Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-75, Fontana Press, p.24 [2] Briggs, Asa, Victorian Cities, Penguin, p.89 [3] ibid, p.92 [4] quoted in Briggs, A, p.346 [5] Taylor, David, Mastering Economic and Social History, Macmillan, p.303 [6] ibid, p.307-8 [7] Taylor, D., p.310 [8] ibid, pp.319-20 [9] Briggs, A., p.156 [10] quoted in Best, G., p.39

Hair in Ancient Egypt :: essays research papers

In Ancient Egypt, hair was an important issue. Hair was cut short or shaved off. Men have short hair. Women have plaits or a ponytail that hangs down the center of back. Priests have no hair anywhere. People also had hair loss. Ancient Egyptians have a lot of hair accessories. They used headbands and pins. They stuck berries and petals in their hair. They used combs, tweezers, shavers, and hair curlers. The combs are usually made of wood or bone. They shaved with a stone blade, then a copper one, then finally a bronze one. They got rid of lice by getting rid of all their hair. In Ancient Egypt, most houses were the same. They were usually close together and had few windows. Every house had flat roofs. All the rooms are square and had little furniture. Ancient Egyptians had to get their wood from nearby countries because they could not grow trees. Wealthy people had servants and were surrounded by a lot of beautiful objects. Farmers and slaves were poor so they cannot afford it. I wonder if they can save money to buy stuff. Ancient Egyptians wore very little clothing. They wore light linen clothing. Usually the linen is white. Men and women wore different clothing. Men wore short skirts and women wore a dress. After the flax is picked, the flax can be woven into very fine linen or can be woven into rough linen. Wealthy people wore fine linen but poor people wore the rougher material. Ancient Egyptians wore light linen clothing. Flax that was grown by farmers was cut and woven into linen. Linen could be rough or fine. Working-class men wore loincloths or short kilts. Wealthy men wore knee length shirts. People wore sandals made out of papyrus. Rough linen was probably cheaper. In Ancient Egypt, doctors used two kinds of healing: medicine and magic. First they would try medicine. Garlic was used in some medicines. If medicine didn't work, they would try magic spells. Doctors thought that the heart controls everything in the body. They chanted prayers and prayed. In ancient Egypt, there were three kinds of Egyptian writing. If a child was to be a scribe when he grew up, he spent around ten years learning the hundreds of hieroglyphic symbols. Demotic and Hieratic writing were used everyday. Ancient Egypt had a lot of different foods. The primary food was grain because it had many uses and was an endless supply of food. Hair in Ancient Egypt :: essays research papers In Ancient Egypt, hair was an important issue. Hair was cut short or shaved off. Men have short hair. Women have plaits or a ponytail that hangs down the center of back. Priests have no hair anywhere. People also had hair loss. Ancient Egyptians have a lot of hair accessories. They used headbands and pins. They stuck berries and petals in their hair. They used combs, tweezers, shavers, and hair curlers. The combs are usually made of wood or bone. They shaved with a stone blade, then a copper one, then finally a bronze one. They got rid of lice by getting rid of all their hair. In Ancient Egypt, most houses were the same. They were usually close together and had few windows. Every house had flat roofs. All the rooms are square and had little furniture. Ancient Egyptians had to get their wood from nearby countries because they could not grow trees. Wealthy people had servants and were surrounded by a lot of beautiful objects. Farmers and slaves were poor so they cannot afford it. I wonder if they can save money to buy stuff. Ancient Egyptians wore very little clothing. They wore light linen clothing. Usually the linen is white. Men and women wore different clothing. Men wore short skirts and women wore a dress. After the flax is picked, the flax can be woven into very fine linen or can be woven into rough linen. Wealthy people wore fine linen but poor people wore the rougher material. Ancient Egyptians wore light linen clothing. Flax that was grown by farmers was cut and woven into linen. Linen could be rough or fine. Working-class men wore loincloths or short kilts. Wealthy men wore knee length shirts. People wore sandals made out of papyrus. Rough linen was probably cheaper. In Ancient Egypt, doctors used two kinds of healing: medicine and magic. First they would try medicine. Garlic was used in some medicines. If medicine didn't work, they would try magic spells. Doctors thought that the heart controls everything in the body. They chanted prayers and prayed. In ancient Egypt, there were three kinds of Egyptian writing. If a child was to be a scribe when he grew up, he spent around ten years learning the hundreds of hieroglyphic symbols. Demotic and Hieratic writing were used everyday. Ancient Egypt had a lot of different foods. The primary food was grain because it had many uses and was an endless supply of food.

us patriot act :: essays research papers

There are many issue with the Patriot Act. Yes it has prevented many attacks on us from terrorists, but would you really want to give up so much freedom in order to have better control of terrorists. Many people would support the act since it does offer more protection against those attacks. Other however, would totally disagree with the act. The Patriot Act is actually violating many of our Constitution rights. The act will allow the government rights to look into your personal life. If the government has enough proof this act will give the opportunity to look into your personal items such as phone taps, electronic communications, and even what is in your bank account. As a person would you really like to have the government go thourgh your personal life and belongings, just for a little more protection.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The government has set up a boundary that allows them the chance to go into your personal lives. The main reasons that are noted that would give them a chance to violate your rights as an American. As noted on web page http://www.epic.org/privacy/terrorism/usapatriot/, that only a certain event will allow a certain individual the chance to allow such things as wiretap. This will occur if an individual is committing one of a list of immune rated crimes, if that happens the communication concerning that offense, and the facilities in which the offender has used in connection with the offense. The only persons that came allow an interception would be only designated officials. The interception is only valid for a certain length of time. In order for a wiretap to be conducted it has to be authorized by a Judge that feels that it would be beneficial to the country. The USA Patriot Act, also known as the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, was set up in order to offer a greater feeling of security to Americans, however, I don’t feel that the Americans really know what the Patriot Act really stands for and what it will do to our rights as Americans. The bill was passed and signed into law by President Bush on October 26, 2001. The Patriot Act was a lot like

Clozapine and the Treatment of Schizophrenia Essay -- Biological Psych

Clozapine and the Treatment of Schizophrenia Clozapine, marketed by the trade name of "Clozaril," is a member of the dibenzodiazepine class of antipsychotic medication, and is one of many types of neuroleptic drugs. Clozapine is an atypical medication because it differs from the older conventional drugs such as Halodol or Lithium. The difference between atypical and the older drugs is because there less neuroleptic activity as a result of more specific receptors utilized. The atypical drugs work effectively to treat psychotic illnesses and tend to have fewer side effects than their predecessors. Clozapine has been found to be the most effective antipsychotic drug for treatment resistant schizophrenia. Clozapine is used on a limited basis because of the risk of agranullocytosis, where white blood cells are destroyed faster than they are produced, causing the individual to be prone to other illnesses. Two other drugs, either one typical and one atypical, or two atypical medications are used and deemed ineffective before clozapine is used due to the this serious side effect, agranullocytosis. Even thought this risk happens to be small, 1% to 2%, the drug is normally viewed in the psychiatric field as a method of last resort.(Kentridge, 1995) The most common explanation for what occurs in the brain of a schizophrenic is the dopamine hypothesis, where certain areas of the brain have excessive activity at certain dopamine receptors.(Kalat, 2004) This theory will be a reoccurring theme when explaining how clozapine interacts with the body. There are also explanations dealing with clozapine's interaction with the serotonin 5HT2 receptors and the glutamate receptors. ... ...hin a week levels will increase with treatment of colazopine.(Naheed & Green, 2000) Andreasen, N.C. (1994). Schizophrenia: From Mind to Molecule. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Kalat, J. (2004). Biological Psychology. 8Th edition, Chapter 15.3. Kentridge, B. (1995). S2 Psychopathology Lecture 3: Schizophrenia. Retrieved March 4, 2005. From Http://www.dur.ac.uk/robert.kentridge/ppath3.html Mann, R. (1996). The Role of Dopamine Receptors in Schizophrenia. Retrieved March 3, 2005, From Stanford University, Chemistry department web site, http://www.chem.csustan.edu/chem44x0/SJBR/Mann.htm Naheed, M., & Green, B. (2000). Focus on Clozapine. Retrieved February 7, 2005. From http://www.priory.com/focus14.htm Waddinton, J.L., & Buckley, P.F. (1996). The neurodevelopmental Basis of Schizophrenia. Austin, TX: Landes Co. Clozapine and the Treatment of Schizophrenia Essay -- Biological Psych Clozapine and the Treatment of Schizophrenia Clozapine, marketed by the trade name of "Clozaril," is a member of the dibenzodiazepine class of antipsychotic medication, and is one of many types of neuroleptic drugs. Clozapine is an atypical medication because it differs from the older conventional drugs such as Halodol or Lithium. The difference between atypical and the older drugs is because there less neuroleptic activity as a result of more specific receptors utilized. The atypical drugs work effectively to treat psychotic illnesses and tend to have fewer side effects than their predecessors. Clozapine has been found to be the most effective antipsychotic drug for treatment resistant schizophrenia. Clozapine is used on a limited basis because of the risk of agranullocytosis, where white blood cells are destroyed faster than they are produced, causing the individual to be prone to other illnesses. Two other drugs, either one typical and one atypical, or two atypical medications are used and deemed ineffective before clozapine is used due to the this serious side effect, agranullocytosis. Even thought this risk happens to be small, 1% to 2%, the drug is normally viewed in the psychiatric field as a method of last resort.(Kentridge, 1995) The most common explanation for what occurs in the brain of a schizophrenic is the dopamine hypothesis, where certain areas of the brain have excessive activity at certain dopamine receptors.(Kalat, 2004) This theory will be a reoccurring theme when explaining how clozapine interacts with the body. There are also explanations dealing with clozapine's interaction with the serotonin 5HT2 receptors and the glutamate receptors. ... ...hin a week levels will increase with treatment of colazopine.(Naheed & Green, 2000) Andreasen, N.C. (1994). Schizophrenia: From Mind to Molecule. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Kalat, J. (2004). Biological Psychology. 8Th edition, Chapter 15.3. Kentridge, B. (1995). S2 Psychopathology Lecture 3: Schizophrenia. Retrieved March 4, 2005. From Http://www.dur.ac.uk/robert.kentridge/ppath3.html Mann, R. (1996). The Role of Dopamine Receptors in Schizophrenia. Retrieved March 3, 2005, From Stanford University, Chemistry department web site, http://www.chem.csustan.edu/chem44x0/SJBR/Mann.htm Naheed, M., & Green, B. (2000). Focus on Clozapine. Retrieved February 7, 2005. From http://www.priory.com/focus14.htm Waddinton, J.L., & Buckley, P.F. (1996). The neurodevelopmental Basis of Schizophrenia. Austin, TX: Landes Co.

The Ironic Title of Judith Guests Ordinary People :: Judith Guest Ordinary People Essays

The Ironic Title of Ordinary People The significance of the title "Ordinary People" is that it is ironic because there are not ordinary people in the book. It does not correspond with the novel itself. As defined in Webster's Dictionary, ordinary means usual, common, or normal. To most people, this is what they think they are. However, in the book being unordinary is common for most of the characters. The author of this book, Judith Guest, probably titled this book "Ordinary People" to make readers ask themselves, "What is ordinary? Am I ordinary?" The title describes the book as being ordinary when the characters are really unusual. For example, most teenagers do not try to commit suicide. However, in this book, Conrad Jarett tries to kill himself. He attempts suicide because he is depressed about his older brother's death. He lost his brother in a boating accident and he blames himself for his death. He believes that he could have prevented the accident by coming in from the sea when the waters began to get rough. However, there was nothing that Conrad could have done to prevent the boat from capsizing. His attempt to commit suicide is one of the things that makes him unordinary from normal teenagers. In the real world, many teenagers attempt suicide. But, this is not ordinary. It is unusual for a teenager to attempt or commit suicide. Society does not look at this sort of behavior as ordinary. If a teenager does attempt suicide, they are usually seeking attention and looking for pity. As a result of these actions, they are seen as having some sort of mental incapacity and are treated for it. Therefore, this is not ordinary and Conrad was not either. Another character in this book who is not ordinary is Beth Jarett, Conrad's mother. Conrad feels as if she does not love him. She hardly talks to him. She also treats him as if he does not belong in the family, like a stranger. For example, in one part of the book, Conrad bends over to hug his mother and she just sits there and does not hug him back. In another part, his father wants to take a picture of Conrad and his mother

Discuss how fear undermines the moral integrity of many of the :: English Literature

Discuss how fear undermines the moral integrity of many of the characters involved 'The Crucible' is a play based on the 17th century Salemwitch hunts. It is also a parable for the events in McCarthy's era in the U.S.A which was a high profile topic at the time it was written. The play is about people who are wrongly accused of helping the devil. 'The Crucible' was written by Arthur Miller and was first performed in 1953, New York. It is set in a puritanical society where the people believe in hard work and little luxury. Their life is based around God, the Bible and the 'Ten commandments'. They're joyless and God-fearing. Pride and integrity are extremely important to them. They're obsessed and fearful of sin, damnation and the devil. Fear is an abstract emotion, it causes people to worry, become nervous and sometimes act in an irrational manner. People can be 'fearful' of many different things. It could be that you or someone you care about is in danger or that you are scared of someone or something. It makes people conscious and aware of what is happening around them or what could happen. It is induced by something frightening, whether it be justified or not (it could be about nothing, paranoia). Fear is often provoked by the unknown, for example the devil in 'The Crucible'. People are very cautious of phenomenon that they are ignorant of or that cannot be explained. A fear that is particularly relevant to the play is, fear of losing their good reputation. Fear can have a major effect on society, especially one as puritanical as Salem. It fuels existing tensions and turns people against each other. People become suspicious of everyone and trust no-one. They accuse their enemies and even their friends. Fear causes people to protect themselves and their pride even at the expense of other of other people's lives! One lie can lead to a dozen as an allegation spirals out of control. People pride themselves on their moral integrity in the town of Salem. 'Moral integrity' is where people live by God's rules and their own principles. They try to keep a good reputation and do the 'right thing'. It is a sort of 'standard' amongst the locals. However, once "the devil entered Salem", the moral integrity of people was at risk, as many people lost the integrity they had as it was all undermined by fear of the Devil, and of being accused. Mary Warren loses all moral integrity she once possessed at the end of 'The Crucible'. Mary is one of the only girls who does not join in Discuss how fear undermines the moral integrity of many of the :: English Literature Discuss how fear undermines the moral integrity of many of the characters involved 'The Crucible' is a play based on the 17th century Salemwitch hunts. It is also a parable for the events in McCarthy's era in the U.S.A which was a high profile topic at the time it was written. The play is about people who are wrongly accused of helping the devil. 'The Crucible' was written by Arthur Miller and was first performed in 1953, New York. It is set in a puritanical society where the people believe in hard work and little luxury. Their life is based around God, the Bible and the 'Ten commandments'. They're joyless and God-fearing. Pride and integrity are extremely important to them. They're obsessed and fearful of sin, damnation and the devil. Fear is an abstract emotion, it causes people to worry, become nervous and sometimes act in an irrational manner. People can be 'fearful' of many different things. It could be that you or someone you care about is in danger or that you are scared of someone or something. It makes people conscious and aware of what is happening around them or what could happen. It is induced by something frightening, whether it be justified or not (it could be about nothing, paranoia). Fear is often provoked by the unknown, for example the devil in 'The Crucible'. People are very cautious of phenomenon that they are ignorant of or that cannot be explained. A fear that is particularly relevant to the play is, fear of losing their good reputation. Fear can have a major effect on society, especially one as puritanical as Salem. It fuels existing tensions and turns people against each other. People become suspicious of everyone and trust no-one. They accuse their enemies and even their friends. Fear causes people to protect themselves and their pride even at the expense of other of other people's lives! One lie can lead to a dozen as an allegation spirals out of control. People pride themselves on their moral integrity in the town of Salem. 'Moral integrity' is where people live by God's rules and their own principles. They try to keep a good reputation and do the 'right thing'. It is a sort of 'standard' amongst the locals. However, once "the devil entered Salem", the moral integrity of people was at risk, as many people lost the integrity they had as it was all undermined by fear of the Devil, and of being accused. Mary Warren loses all moral integrity she once possessed at the end of 'The Crucible'. Mary is one of the only girls who does not join in

Major Problems In California History Essay

The major arguments in the two essays by Cletus E. Daniel and Devra Anne Weber revolved around the harsh working conditions and poor wages that the farm workers were subjected to in California. These injustices prompted reactions from the farm workers through strikes that were organized by their unions and mutual aid societies in a bid to negotiate for better wages and improved standards of living. The essays also highlight the fact that the farm workforce in California comprised majorly of Mexican workers and a minority of Filipino workers. Finally, the essays highlight the unsuccessful nature of the attempts by the farm workers to push for reforms in their working and living standards as well as negotiating for wage increase. However, there also exist some differences between the conclusions of the two essays. According to Devra, the Mexican union headed by the Mexican Consul, Terrazas was able to reach an agreement with the growers concerning the conditions and wages of the Mexican workers. The agreement included a wage payment of between twenty five to thirty five cents per hour and thirteen cents a crate. It also suggested guaranteed access to water to workers furnished by the growers. Devra also records that this agreement was reached without complete support of the union. According to her, the issue of communism was vital in the history of California labor. This comes to light with the agreement of the growers to give protection to their workers against the communist agitators (Weber, 295). Cletus however does not record any instance where such an agreement was reached between union members and growers. He concludes by showing the plight and helplessness suffered by the farm workers following the failure to procure better working conditions and higher wages. Cletus distanced capitalism as the cause of the problems experienced by the farm workers citing that they believed their problems to be as a result of low wages (Daniel, 288). As far as the difference in the conclusions of the two essays is concerned, the question on the accuracy of the California history of labor comes to mind. This is a problem that is brought about by the uniqueness of each author in interpretation of events and occurrences in history. This in the two essays is brought to light by the link created by Devra between the problems the growers were experiencing with the farm workers and communist agitators while Cletus explores this issue from a capitalist perspective and its link to the problems experienced by the farm workers. The Imperial Valley episode reveals a number of issues about labor and unionism in the US. To begin with, it highlights the frustrations of the farm workers in terms of poor working and living conditions as well as low wages which led to the surge in protests and strikes. It is these frustrations that necessitated the participation and formation of unions so as to fight for the rights of the workers following the realization that the only way that they could be heard was only if they acted collectively. Another issue that is revealed is the use of authorities to suppress the unionization attempts of the workers as well as to deny them their rights of assembly and strikes. The growers used city, county, state and federal authorities to quell strikes by the workers. There also was the unfair trial of the leaders of the unions for example the El Centro trial which were meant to intimidate future leaders of the unions. Finally, it appears that it is the communists that were actively involved in the fight for the rights of the farm workers as well as the unionization attempts. This is because it is the communists that came to head the unions and organize strikes against the growers who were capitalists. References Daniel Cletus E. Communist Organizers in the Imperial Valley Weber Devra A. Mexicano Farm workers on Strike